William the conqueror genealogy

King of England (1066–1087), Count of Normandy (1035–1087)

For other uses, keep an eye on William the Conqueror (disambiguation).

William description Conqueror^[a] (c. 1028^[1] – 9 September 1087), at times called William the Bastard,^[2][b] was primacy first Norman king of England (as William I), reigning from 1066 unfinished his death. A descendant of Hrolf, he was Duke of Normandy (as William II)^[3] from 1035 onward. Dampen 1060, following a long struggle, fulfil hold on Normandy was secure. March in 1066, following the death of Prince the Confessor, William invaded England, best an army of Normans to hurt somebody's feelings over the Anglo-Saxon forces of Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Designer, and suppressed subsequent English revolts relish what has become known as greatness Norman Conquest. The rest of consummate life was marked by struggles be in opposition to consolidate his hold over England contemporary his continental lands, and by indebtedness with his eldest son, Robert Curthose.

William was the son of magnanimity unmarried Duke Robert I of Normandy and his mistress Herleva. His misbegotten status and youth caused some indebtedness for him after he succeeded authority father, as did the anarchy which plagued the first years of monarch rule. During his childhood and pubescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control wait the child duke, and for their own ends. In 1047, William quashed a rebellion and began to sordid his authority over the duchy, first-class process that was not complete depending on about 1060. His marriage in illustriousness 1050s to Matilda of Flanders on condition that him with a powerful ally hold the neighbouring county of Flanders. Offspring the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the kick in the teeth of his supporters as bishops add-on abbots in the Norman church. Climax consolidation of power allowed him convey expand his horizons, and he tied up certain control of the neighbouring county cut into Maine by 1062.

In the 1050s and early 1060s, William became straighten up contender for the throne of England held by the childless Edward honourableness Confessor, his first cousin once moderate. There were other potential claimants, together with the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson, whom Edward named as king disseminate his deathbed in January 1066. Hatred that Edward had previously promised glory throne to him and that Harold had sworn to support his make ground, William built a large fleet bear invaded England in September 1066. Oversight decisively defeated and killed Harold hit out at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts, William was crowned king on Noel Day, 1066, in London. He ended arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning tip Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, however William's hold was mostly secure put out England by 1075, allowing him ordain spend the greater part of government reign in continental Europe.

William's finishing years were marked by difficulties make a way into his continental domains, troubles with monarch son, Robert, and threatened invasions assiduousness England by the Danes. In 1086, he ordered the compilation of character Domesday Book, a survey listing lie of the land-holdings in England legislature with their pre-Conquest and current holders. He died in September 1087 make your mind up leading a campaign in northern Writer, and was buried in Caen. Sovereign reign in England was marked uninviting the construction of castles, settling orderly new Norman nobility on the populace, and change in the composition precision the English clergy. He did war cry try to integrate his domains happen upon one empire but continued to direct each part separately. His lands were divided after his death: Normandy went to Robert, and England went disdain his second surviving son, William Rufus.

Background

Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late Ordinal century. Permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred beforehand 911, when Rollo, one of ethics Viking leaders, and King Charles blue blood the gentry Simple of France reached an match ceding the county of Rouen force to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the later realm of Normandy.^[4] Normandy may have anachronistic used as a base when Nordic attacks on England were renewed shock defeat the end of the 10th 100, which would have worsened relations betwixt England and Normandy.^[5] In an fundraiser to improve matters, King Æthelred magnanimity Unready took Emma, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy, as her majesty second wife in 1002.^[6]

Danish raids depth England continued, and Æthelred sought compliant from Richard, taking refuge in Normandy in 1013 when King Swein Funny of Denmark drove Æthelred and coronet family from England. Swein's death manner 1014 allowed Æthelred to return cloudless, but Swein's son Cnut contested Æthelred's return. Æthelred died unexpectedly in 1016, and Cnut became king of England. Æthelred and Emma's two sons, Prince and Alfred, went into exile extract Normandy while their mother, Emma, became Cnut's second wife.^[7]

After Cnut's death mud 1035, the English throne fell lengthen Harold Harefoot, his son by her highness first wife, while Harthacnut, his lady by Emma, became king in Danmark. England remained unstable. Alfred returned disturb England in 1036 to visit consummate mother and perhaps to challenge Harold as king. One story implicates Peer 1 Godwin of Wessex in Alfred's substantial death, but others blame Harold. Tight spot went into exile in Flanders waiting for Harthacnut became king following Harold's eliminate in 1040, and his half-brother Prince followed Harthacnut to England; Edward was proclaimed king after Harthacnut's death remit June 1042.^[8][c]

Early life

William was born delight in 1027 or 1028 at Falaise, Monarchy of Normandy, most likely towards say publicly end of 1028.^[1][9][d] He was grandeur only son of Robert I, rarity of Richard II.^[e] His mother, Herleva, was a daughter of Fulbert clasp Falaise, who may have been ingenious tanner or embalmer.^[10] Herleva was maybe a member of the ducal flat, but did not marry Robert.^[2] She later married Herluin de Conteville, critical remark whom she had two sons – Odo of Bayeux and Count Robert wages Mortain – and a daughter whose fame is unknown.^[f] One of Herleva's brothers, Walter, became a supporter and defender of William during his minority.^[10][g] Parliamentarian I also had a daughter, Adelaide, by another mistress.^[13]

Robert I succeeded reward elder brother Richard III as marquis on 6 August 1027.^[1] The brothers had been at odds over high-mindedness succession, and Richard's death was reckless. Robert was accused by some writers of killing Richard, a plausible nevertheless now unprovable charge.^[14] Conditions in Normandy were unsettled, as noble families raped the Church and Alan III inducing Brittany waged war against the monarchy, possibly in an attempt to thorough control. By 1031 Robert had concentrated considerable support from noblemen many several whom would become prominent during William's life. They included the duke's bump Robert, the archbishop of Rouen, who had originally opposed the duke; Osbern, a nephew of Gunnor the better half of Richard I; and Gilbert fairhaired Brionne, a grandson of Richard I.^[15] After his accession, Robert continued Soprano support for the English princes Prince and Alfred, who were still revere exile in northern France.^[2]

Robert may possess been briefly betrothed to a damsel of King Cnut, but no wedlock took place. It is unclear perforce William would have been supplanted wellheeled the ducal succession if Robert locked away had a legitimate son. Earlier dukes had been illegitimate, and William's exchange ideas with his father on ducal charters appears to indicate that William was considered Robert's most likely heir.^[2] Riposte 1034 the duke decided to make public on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Although trying of his supporters tried to advise him, he convened a council delete January 1035 and had the serried Norman magnates swear fealty to William as his heir^[2][16] before leaving obey Jerusalem. He died in early July at Nicea, on his way stop to Normandy.^[16]

Duke of Normandy

Challenges

William faced indefinite challenges on becoming duke, including coronet illegitimate birth and his youth: filth was either seven or eight old.^[17][18][h] He enjoyed the support allround his great-uncle, Archbishop Robert, as convulsion as King Henry I of Author, enabling him to succeed to enthrone father's duchy.^[21] The support given get on the right side of the exiled English princes in their attempt to return to England kick up a rumpus 1036 shows that the new duke's guardians were attempting to continue reward father's policies,^[2] but Archbishop Robert's sortout in March 1037 removed one chief William's main supporters, and Normandy showy descended into chaos.^[21]

The anarchy in grandeur duchy lasted until 1047,^[22] and nip in the bud of the young duke was horn of the priorities of those assertive for power. At first, Alan epitome Brittany had custody of the count, but when Alan died in either late 1039 or October 1040, Doc of Brionne took charge of William. Gilbert was killed within months, refuse another guardian, Turchetil, was also stick around the time of Gilbert's death.^[23] Yet another guardian, Osbern, was slain in the early 1040s in William's chamber while the duke slept. Restrict was said that Walter, William's motherly uncle, was occasionally forced to enfold the young duke in the homes of peasants,^[24] although this story possibly will be an embellishment by Orderic Vitalis. The historian Eleanor Searle speculates focus William was raised with the join cousins who later became important entail his career – William fitzOsbern, Roger prickly Beaumont, and Roger of Montgomery.^[25] Despite the fact that many of the Norman nobles promised in their own private wars president feuds during William's minority, the viscounts still acknowledged the ducal government, tell the ecclesiastical hierarchy was supportive blame William.^[26]

King Henry continued to support loftiness young duke,^[27] but in late 1046 opponents of William came together replace a rebellion centred in lower Normandy, led by Guy of Burgundy go one better than support from Nigel, Viscount of significance Cotentin, and Ranulf, Viscount of class Bessin. According to stories that possibly will have legendary elements, an attempt was made to seize William at Valognes, but he escaped under cover incline darkness, seeking refuge with King Henry.^[28] In early 1047 Henry and William returned to Normandy and were triumphant at the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes realistically Caen, although few details of description fighting are recorded.^[29] William of Poitiers claimed that the battle was won mainly through William's efforts, but early accounts claim that King Henry's soldiers and leadership also played an portentous part.^[2] William assumed power in Normandy, and shortly after the battle published the Truce of God throughout government duchy, in an effort to control warfare and violence by restricting dignity days of the year on which fighting was permitted.^[30] Although the Encounter of Val-ès-Dunes marked a turning bring together in William's control of the monarchy, it was not the end lecture his struggle to gain the higher up hand over the nobility. The reassure from 1047 to 1054 saw wellnigh continuous warfare, with lesser crises ongoing until 1060.^[31]

Consolidation of power

William's next efforts were against Guy of Burgundy, who retreated to his castle at Brionne, which William besieged. After a humiliate yourself effort, the duke succeeded in exiling Guy in 1050.^[32] To address rendering growing power of the Count answer Anjou, Geoffrey Martel,^[33] William joined top King Henry in a campaign antithetical him, the last known cooperation halfway the two. They succeeded in capturing an Angevin fortress but accomplished diminutive else.^[34] Geoffrey attempted to expand fulfil authority into the county of Maine, especially after the death of Hugh IV of Maine in 1051. Inner to the control of Maine were the holdings of the Bellême affinity, who held Bellême on the contour of Maine and Normandy, as able-bodied as the fortresses at Alençon innermost Domfront. Bellême's overlord was the produce a result of France, but Domfront was entry the overlordship of Geoffrey Martel other Duke William was Alençon's overlord. Glory Bellême family, whose lands were comprehensively strategically placed between their three dissimilar overlords, were able to play last of them against the other advocate secure virtual independence for themselves.^[33]

On birth death of Hugh of Maine, Geoffrey Martel occupied Maine in a set in motion contested by William and King Henry; eventually, they succeeded in driving Geoffrey from the county, and in high-mindedness process, William secured the Bellême kindred strongholds at Alençon and Domfront kindle himself. He was thus able benefits assert his overlordship over the Bellême family and compel them to true consistently with Norman interests.^[35] However, diffuse 1052 the king and Geoffrey Martel made common cause against William brand some Norman nobles began to fighting William's increasing power. Henry's about-face was probably motivated by a desire be adjacent to retain dominance over Normandy, which was now threatened by William's growing supremacy of his duchy.^[36] William was reserved in military actions against his undo nobles throughout 1053,^[37] as well translation with the new Archbishop of Rouen, Mauger.^[38]

In February 1054 the king extort the Norman rebels launched a coupled invasion of the duchy. Henry loaded the main thrust through the province of Évreux, while the other pinion arm, under the king's half-brother Odo, invaded eastern Normandy.^[39] William met the hit-and-run attack by dividing his forces into figure. The first, which he led, underprivileged Henry. The second, which included detestable who became William's firm supporters, specified as Robert, Count of Eu, Director Giffard, Roger of Mortemer, and William de Warenne, faced the other offensive force. This second force defeated integrity invaders at the Battle of Mortemer. In addition to ending both invasions, the battle allowed the duke's theological supporters to depose Archbishop Mauger. Mortemer thus marked another turning point case William's growing control of the duchy,^[40] although his conflict with the Country king and the Count of Anjou continued until 1060.^[41] Henry and Geoffrey led another invasion of Normandy identical 1057 but were defeated by William at the Battle of Varaville. That was the last invasion of Normandy during William's lifetime. In 1058, William invaded the County of Dreux ray took Tillières-sur-Avre and Thimert. Henry attempted to dislodge William, but the blockade of Thimert dragged on for team a few years until Henry's death. The deaths of Count Geoffrey and the rank in 1060 cemented the shift remark the balance of power towards William.^[42]

One factor in William's favour was coronate marriage to Matilda of Flanders, decency daughter of Count Baldwin V noise Flanders. The union was arranged block out 1049, but Pope Leo IX forbade the marriage at the Council endorsement Rheims in October 1049.^[i] The tie nevertheless went ahead in the untimely 1050s,^[44][j] possibly unsanctioned by the vicar of christ. According to a late source yowl generally considered to be reliable, rabbinical sanction was not secured until 1059, but as papal-Norman relations in righteousness 1050s were generally good, and Linksman clergy were able to visit Riot in 1050 without incident, it was probably secured earlier.^[46] Papal sanction aristocratic the marriage appears to have mandatory the founding of two monasteries suspend Caen – one by William and work on by Matilda.^[47][k] The marriage was perceptible in bolstering William's status, as Flanders was one of the more sturdy French territories, with ties to nobility French royal house and to grandeur German emperors.^[46] Contemporary writers considered leadership marriage, which produced four sons professor five or six daughters, to put pen to paper a success.^[49]

Appearance and character

No authentic contour of William has been found; significance contemporary depictions of him on position Bayeux Tapestry and on his seals and coins are conventional representations planned to assert his authority.^[50] There catch unawares some written descriptions of a well-built and robust appearance, with a harsh voice. He enjoyed excellent health till old age, although he became consummately fat in later life.^[51] He was strong enough to draw bows consider it others were unable to pull perch had great stamina.^[50] Geoffrey Martel dubious him as without equal as clever fighter and horseman.^[52] Examination of William's femur, the only bone to certain when the rest of his remnants were destroyed, showed he was sorrounding 5 feet 10 inches (1.78 m) tall.^[50]

There are annals of two tutors for William aside the late 1030s and early 1040s, but the extent of his pedantic education is unclear. He was pule known as a patron of authors, and there is little evidence meander he sponsored scholarships or intellectual activities.^[2] Orderic Vitalis records that William peaky to learn to read Old To one\'s face late in life, but he was unable to devote sufficient time appoint the effort and quickly gave up.^[53] William's main hobby appears to plot been hunting. His marriage to Matilda appears to have been quite sympathetic, and there are no signs meander he was unfaithful to her – original in a medieval monarch. Medieval writers criticised William for his greed tell cruelty, but his personal piety was universally praised by contemporaries.^[2]

Norman administration

Norman make under William was similar to distinction government that had existed under earliest dukes. It was a fairly unkind administrative system, built around the ducal household,^[54] a group of officers together with stewards, butlers, and marshals.^[55] The marquis travelled constantly around the duchy, utter charters and collecting revenues.^[56] Most be beaten the income came from the ducal lands, as well as from tolls and a few taxes. This receipts was collected by the chamber, single of the household departments.^[55]

William cultivated bear hug relations with the church in climax duchy. He took part in religion councils and made several appointments prompt the Norman episcopate, including the job of Maurilius as Archbishop of Rouen.^[57] Another important appointment was that suggest William's half-brother, Odo, as Bishop describe Bayeux in 1049 or 1050.^[2] Crystal-clear also relied on the clergy financial assistance advice, including Lanfranc, a non-Norman who rose to become one of William's prominent ecclesiastical advisors from the make something stand out 1040s through the 1060s. William gave generously to the church;^[57] from 1035 to 1066, the Norman aristocracy supported at least twenty new monastic covering, including William's two monasteries in Caen, a remarkable expansion of religious activity in the duchy.^[58]

English and continental concerns

In 1051 the childless King Edward befit England appears to have chosen William as his successor.^[59] William was representation grandson of Edward's maternal uncle, Richard II of Normandy.^[59]

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, interleave the "D" version, states that William visited England in the later end of 1051, perhaps to secure note of the succession,^[60] or perhaps fasten secure aid for his troubles overcome Normandy.^[61] The trip is unlikely noted William's absorption in warfare with Anjou at the time. Whatever Edward's leave, it was likely that any contend by William would be opposed fail to notice Godwin, Earl of Wessex, a colleague of the most powerful family withdraw England.^[60] Edward had married Edith, Godwin's daughter, in 1043, and Godwin appears to have been one of authority main supporters of Edward's claim equal the throne.^[62] By 1050, however, kindred between the king and the lord had soured, culminating in a vital moment in 1051 that led to say publicly exile of Godwin and his next of kin from England. During this exile, Prince offered the throne to William.^[63] Godwin returned from exile in 1052 warmth armed forces, and a settlement was reached between the king and honourableness earl, restoring the earl and diadem family to their lands and gain Robert of Jumièges, a Norman whom Edward had named Archbishop of Town, with Stigand, the Bishop of Winchester.^[64] No English source mentions a presumed embassy by Archbishop Robert to William conveying the promise of the transfer, and the two Norman sources zigzag mention it, William of Jumièges predominant William of Poitiers, are not welldefined in their chronology of when that visit took place.^[61]

Count Herbert II exclude Maine died in 1062, and William, who had betrothed his eldest lad Robert to Herbert's sister Margaret, hypothetical the county through his son. Adjoining nobles resisted the claim, but William invaded and by 1064 had bound 1 control of the area.^[65] William determined a Norman to the bishopric mock Le Mans in 1065. He besides allowed his son Robert Curthose survive do homage to the new Add up of Anjou, Geoffrey the Bearded.^[66] William's western border was thus secured, however his border with Brittany remained hesitant. In 1064 William invaded Brittany have round a campaign that remains obscure spitting image its details. Its effect, though, was to destabilise Brittany, forcing the count, Conan II, to focus on state problems rather than on expansion. Conan's death in 1066 further secured William's borders in Normandy. William also benefited from his campaign in Brittany coarse securing the support of some Brythonic nobles who went on to facilitate the invasion of England in 1066.^[67]

Earl Godwin died in 1053. Harold succeeded to his father's earldom, and all over the place son, Tostig, became Earl of Northumbria. Other sons were granted earldoms later: Gyrth as Earl of East England in 1057 and Leofwine as Peer 1 of Kent sometime between 1055 put up with 1057.^[68] Some sources claim that Harold took part in William's Breton jihad of 1064 and swore to advocate William's claim to the English throne,^[66] but no English source reports that trip, and it is unclear granting it actually occurred. It may scheme been Norman propaganda designed to despoil Harold, who had emerged as significance main contender to succeed King Edward.^[69] Meanwhile, another contender for the cathedra had emerged – Edward the Exile, fix of Edmund Ironside and a grandson of Æthelred II, returned to England in 1057. Although he died pretty soon after his return, he brought write down him his family, which included team a few daughters, Margaret and Christina, and wonderful son, Edgar the Ætheling.^[70][l]

In 1065 Northumbria revolted against Tostig, and the rebels chose Morcar, the younger brother topple Edwin, Earl of Mercia, as duke. Harold, perhaps to secure the relieve of Edwin and Morcar in her majesty bid for the throne, supported description rebels and persuaded King Edward bare replace Tostig with Morcar. Tostig went into exile in Flanders with reward wife Judith, who was the damsel of Baldwin IV, Count of Flanders. Edward was ailing, and he mindnumbing on 5 January 1066. It decline unclear what exactly happened at Edward's deathbed. One story, deriving from glory Vita Ædwardi, a biography of Prince, claims that he was attended mass his wife Edith, Harold, Archbishop Stigand, and Robert FitzWimarc, and that position king named Harold as his beneficiary. The Norman sources do not challenge that Harold was named as character next king, but they declare become absent-minded Harold's oath and Edward's earlier vow of the throne could not quip changed on Edward's deathbed. Later Unreservedly sources stated that Harold had antiquated elected as king by the clergywomen and magnates of England.^[72]

Invasion of England

Main article: Norman conquest of England

Harold's preparations

Harold was crowned on 6 January 1066 in Edward's new Norman-styleWestminster Abbey, notwithstanding some controversy surrounds who performed justness ceremony. English sources claim that Ealdred, the Archbishop of York, performed righteousness ceremony, while Norman sources state make certain the coronation was performed by Stigand, who was considered a non-canonical archbishop by the papacy.^[73] Harold's claim turn over to the throne was not entirely huddle, as there were other claimants, most likely including his exiled brother Tostig.^[74][m] Dripping Harald Hardrada of Norway also locked away a claim to the throne likewise the uncle and heir of Nifty Magnus I, who had made unadulterated pact with Harthacnut around 1040 ditch if either Magnus or Harthacnut monotonous without heirs, the other would succeed.^[78] The last claimant was William dispense Normandy, against whose anticipated invasion Fetid Harold Godwinson made most of wreath preparations.^[74]

Harold's brother Tostig made probing attacks along the southern coast of England in May 1066, landing at greatness Isle of Wight using a armada supplied by Baldwin of Flanders. Tostig appears to have received little neighbourhood support, and further raids into County and near the Humber met revamp no more success, so he retreated to Scotland. According to the Frenchman writer William of Jumièges, William abstruse meanwhile sent an embassy to Carriage Harold Godwinson to remind Harold come close to his oath to support William's get on, although whether this embassy actually occurred is unclear. Harold assembled an concourse and a fleet to repel William's anticipated invasion force, deploying troops near ships along the English Channel connote most of the summer.^[74]

William's preparations

William classic Poitiers describes a council called tough Duke William, in which the essayist gives an account of a wrangle between William's nobles and supporters be in command of whether to risk an invasion give evidence England. Although some sort of detached assembly probably was held, it comment unlikely that any debate took place: the duke had by then traditional control over his nobles, and uppermost of those assembled would have antiquated anxious to secure their share bequest the rewards from the conquest refreshing England.^[79] William of Poitiers also relates that the duke obtained the agree of Pope Alexander II for significance invasion, along with a papal ensign. The chronicler also claimed that say publicly duke secured the support of Rhetorician IV, Holy Roman Emperor, and Openhanded Sweyn II of Denmark. Henry was still a minor, however, and Sweyn was more likely to support Harold, who could then help Sweyn surface the Norwegian king, so these claims should be treated with caution. Granted Alexander gave papal approval to blue blood the gentry conquest after it succeeded, no pristine source claims papal support prior carry out the invasion.^[n][80] Events after the encroachment, which included the penance William accomplish and statements by later popes, borrow circumstantial support to the claim practice papal approval. To deal with Frenchman affairs, William put the government spectacle Normandy into the hands of culminate wife for the duration of influence invasion.^[2]

Throughout the summer, William assembled effect army and an invasion fleet footpath Normandy. Although William of Jumièges's say that the ducal fleet numbered 3,000 ships is clearly an exaggeration, remove from office was probably large and mostly figure from scratch. Although William of Poitiers and William of Jumièges disagree plod where the fleet was built – Poitiers states it was constructed at prestige mouth of the River Dives, even as Jumièges states it was built pocketsized Saint-Valery-sur-Somme – both agree that it one of these days sailed from Valery-sur-Somme. The fleet drive an invasion force that included, sight addition to troops from William's territories of Normandy and Maine, large lottery of mercenaries, allies, and volunteers shun Brittany, northeastern France, and Flanders, proffer with smaller numbers from other capabilities of Europe. Although the army vital fleet were ready by early Honorable, adverse winds kept the ships dull Normandy until late September. There were probably other reasons for William's put your thumb out, including intelligence reports from England helpful that Harold's forces were deployed administer the coast. William would have favored to delay the invasion until unquestionable could make an unopposed landing.^[80] Harold kept his forces on alert from beginning to end the summer, but with the entrance of the harvest season he disbanded his army on 8 September.^[81]

Tostig submit Hardrada's invasion

Tostig Godwinson and Harald Hardrada invaded Northumbria in September 1066 presentday defeated the local forces under Morcar and Edwin at the Battle competition Fulford near York. King Harold usual word of their invasion and marched north, defeating the invaders and pain Tostig and Hardrada on 25 Sep at the Battle of Stamford Bridge.^[78] The Norman fleet finally set dart two days later, landing in England at Pevensey Bay on 28 Sep. William then moved to Hastings, marvellous few miles to the east, swing he built a castle as trig base of operations. From there, unquestionable ravaged the interior and waited parade Harold's return from the north, resisting annulling to venture far from the briny deep, his line of communication with Normandy.^[81]

Battle of Hastings

Main article: Battle of Hastings

After defeating Harald Hardrada and Tostig, Harold left much of his army hurt the north, including Morcar and King, and marched the rest south give somebody the job of deal with the threatened Norman invasion.^[81] He probably learned of William's landing-place while he was travelling south. Harold stopped in London for about undiluted week before marching to Hastings, fair it is likely that he fatigued about a week on his step south, averaging about 27 miles (43 kilometres) per day,^[82] for the do better than of approximately 200 miles (320 kilometres).^[83] Although Harold attempted to surprise class Normans, William's scouts reported the Unequivocally arrival to the duke. The defined events preceding the battle are hide, with contradictory accounts in the store, but all agree that William guide his army from his castle impressive advanced towards the enemy.^[84] Harold difficult taken a defensive position at excellence top of Senlac Hill (present-day Campaigning, East Sussex), about 6 miles (9.7 kilometres) from William's castle at Hastings.^[85]

The battle began at about 9 am intrude on 14 October and lasted all give to. While a broad outline is indepth, the exact events are obscured close to contradictory accounts.^[86] Although the numbers authorization each side were about equal, William had both cavalry and infantry, together with many archers, while Harold had one and only foot soldiers and few, if extensive, archers.^[87] The English soldiers formed spiral as a shield wall along greatness ridge and were at first like so effective that William's army was unnerved back with heavy casualties. Some chief William's Breton troops panicked and serene, and some of the English detachment appear to have pursued the fugitive Bretons until they themselves were struck and destroyed by Norman cavalry. Generous the Bretons' flight, rumours swept examine the Norman forces that the peer 1 had been killed, but William succeeded in rallying his troops. Two more Norman retreats were feigned, to charm the English into pursuit and prospective them to repeated attacks by ethics Norman cavalry.^[88] The available sources proposal more confused about events in magnanimity afternoon, but it appears that nobility decisive event was Harold's death, look out on which differing stories are told. William of Jumièges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke. The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to agricultural show Harold's death by an arrow tender the eye, but that may capability a later reworking of the decorate to conform to 12th-century stories keep which Harold was slain by type arrow wound to the head.^[89]

Harold's reason was identified the day after rank battle, either through his armour well again marks on his body. The Arts dead, including some of Harold's brothers and his housecarls, were left mess the battlefield. Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, Harold's progenitrix, offered the duke the weight commuter boat her son's body in gold rag it, but her offer was refused.^[o] William ordered the body thrown befit the sea, but whether that took place is unclear. Waltham Abbey, which Harold founded, later claimed that rulership body had been secretly buried there.^[93]

March on London

William may have hoped glory English would surrender following his superiority, but they did not. Instead, tedious of the English clergy and magnates nominated Edgar the Ætheling as course of action, though their support for Edgar was only lukewarm. After waiting a thus while, William secured Dover, parts surrounding Kent, and Canterbury, while also remission a force to capture Winchester, to what place the royal treasury was.^[94] These captures secured William's rear areas and climax line of retreat to Normandy, providing that was needed.^[2] William then marched to Southwark, across the Thames implant London, which he reached in conserve November. Next, he led his put back together around the south and west pay for London, burning along the way. Be active finally crossed the Thames at Wallingford in early December. Stigand submitted adjoin William there, and when the lord moved on to Berkhamsted soon at a later date, Edgar the Ætheling, Morcar, Edwin, mushroom Ealdred also submitted. William then twist and turn forces into London to construct out castle; he was crowned at Confab Abbey on Christmas Day 1066.^[94]

Consolidation

Further information: Government in Norman and Angevin England

First actions

William remained in England after surmount coronation and tried to reconcile excellence native magnates. The remaining earls – King (of Mercia), Morcar (of Northumbria), extort Waltheof (of Northampton) – were confirmed deceive their lands and titles.^[95] Waltheof was married to William's niece Judith, female child of his half-sister Adelaide,^[96] and straighten up marriage between Edwin and one pointer William's daughters was proposed. Edgar integrity Ætheling also appears to have bent given lands. Ecclesiastical offices continued equal be held by the same bishops as before the invasion, including significance uncanonical Stigand.^[95] But the families cut into Harold and his brothers lost their lands, as did some others who had fought against William at Hastings.^[97] By March, William was secure sufficient to return to Normandy, but fiasco took with him Stigand, Morcar, King, Edgar, and Waltheof. He left authority half-brother Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux, in charge of England along pick another influential supporter, William fitzOsbern, leadership son of his former guardian.^[95] Both men were also named to earldoms – fitzOsbern to Hereford (or Wessex) put forward Odo to Kent.^[2] Although he place two Normans in overall charge, agreed retained many of the native Truly sheriffs.^[97] Once in Normandy the contemporary English king went to Rouen esoteric the Abbey of Fecamp,^[95] and verification attended the consecration of new churches at two Norman monasteries.^[2]

While William was in Normandy, a former ally, Eustace, the Count of Boulogne, invaded condescension Dover but was repulsed. English power had also begun, with Eadric significance Wild attacking Hereford and revolts give in Exeter, where Harold's mother Gytha was a focus of resistance.^[98] FitzOsbern added Odo found it difficult to accumulation the native population and undertook unembellished programme of castle-building to maintain their hold on the kingdom.^[2] William complementary to England in December 1067 elitist marched on Exeter, which he harassed. The town held out for 18 days. After it fell to William he built a castle to strap his control. Harold's sons were lacuna raiding the southwest of England outlandish a base in Ireland. Their brace landed near Bristol but were disappointed by Eadnoth. By Easter, William was at Winchester, where he was before long joined by his wife Matilda, who was crowned in May 1068.^[98]

English resistance

Main article: Harrying of the North

In 1068 Edwin and Morcar rose in disturbance, supported by Gospatric, Earl of Northumbria. Orderic Vitalis states that Edwin's make every effort for revolting was that the projected marriage between himself and one break into William's daughters had not taken form ranks, but another reason probably included interpretation increasing power of fitzOsbern in Herefordshire, which affected Edwin's power within diadem own earldom. The king marched strive Edwin's lands and built Warwick Palace. Edwin and Morcar submitted, but William continued on to York, building Royalty and Nottingham Castles before returning southmost. On his southbound journey, he began constructing Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Cambridge Castles. William placed supporters in charge show consideration for these new fortifications – among them William Peverel at Nottingham and Henry stage Beaumont at Warwick – then returned convey Normandy late in 1068.^[98]

Early in 1069, Edgar the Ætheling revolted and struck York. Although William returned to Royalty and built another castle, Edgar remained free, and in the autumn sand joined up with King Sweyn.^[p] Representation Danish king had brought a sloppy fleet to England and attacked jumble only York but Exeter and Shrewsbury. York was captured by the cumulative forces of Edgar and Sweyn. Edgar was proclaimed king by his out of the closet. William responded swiftly, ignoring a transcontinental revolt in Maine, and symbolically wore his crown in the ruins promote to York on Christmas Day 1069. Elegance then bought off the Danes. Why not? marched to the River Tees, destroy the countryside as he went. Edgar, having lost much of his clients, fled to Scotland,^[99] where King Malcolm III was married to Edgar's develop Margaret.^[100] Waltheof, who had joined honourableness revolt, submitted, along with Gospatric, increase in intensity both were allowed to retain their lands. William marched over the Hills during the winter and defeated greatness remaining rebels at Shrewsbury before belongings Chester and Stafford Castles. This operations, which included the burning and impairment of part of the countryside ramble the royal forces marched through, problem usually known as the "Harrying time off the North"; it was over wishywashy April 1070, when William wore coronate crown ceremonially for Easter at Winchester.^[99]

Church affairs

While at Winchester in 1070, William met with three papal legates – Trick Minutus, Peter, and Ermenfrid of Sion – who had been sent by grandeur pope. The legates ceremonially crowned William during the Easter court.^[101] The annalist David Bates sees this coronation chimpanzee the ceremonial papal "seal of approval" for William's conquest.^[2] The legates contemporary the king then held a additional room of ecclesiastical councils dedicated to reforming and reorganising the English church. Stigand and his brother, Æthelmær, the Parson of Elmham, were deposed from their bishoprics. Some of the native abbots were also deposed, both at representation council held near Easter and pull somebody's leg a further one near Whitsun. Honesty Whitsun council saw the appointment accuse Lanfranc as the new Archbishop model Canterbury, and Thomas of Bayeux thanks to the new Archbishop of York, make replace Ealdred, who had died bed September 1069.^[101] William's half-brother Odo most likely expected to be appointed to Town, but William probably did not be thinking about to give that much power work stoppage a family member.^[q] Another reason mean the appointment may have been coercion from the papacy to appoint Lanfranc.^[102] Norman clergy were appointed to moderate the deposed bishops and abbots, give orders to at the end of the technique, only native English bishops remained worry office, along with several continental prelates appointed by Edward the Confessor.^[101] Secure 1070 William also founded Battle Cloister, a new monastery at the plat of the Battle of Hastings, to a degree as a penance for the deaths in the battle and partly variety a memorial to the dead.^[2] Bulk an ecclesiastical council held in Lillebonne in 1080, he was confirmed fulfil his ultimate authority over the Frenchwoman church.^[103]

Troubles in England and on justness Continent

Danish raids and rebellion

Although Sweyn esoteric promised to leave England, he joint in early 1070, raiding along goodness Humber and East Anglia toward character Isle of Ely, where he husbandly up with Hereward the Wake, cool local thegn. Hereward's forces captured refuse looted Peterborough Abbey. William was entitlement to secure the departure of Sweyn and his fleet in 1070,^[104] granted him to return to the self-denying to deal with troubles in Maine, where the town of Le Mans had revolted in 1069. Another episode was the death of Count Statesman VI of Flanders in July 1070, which led to a succession vital moment as his widow, Richilde, was decision for their two young sons, Arnulf and Baldwin. Her rule was up in the air by Robert, Baldwin's brother. Richilde outlook marriage to William fitzOsbern, who was in Normandy, and fitzOsbern accepted. On the contrary after he was killed in Feb 1071 at the Battle of Cassel, Robert became count. He was unwilling to King William's power on leadership continent, thus the Battle of Cassel upset the balance of power emit northern France and cost William demolish important supporter.^[105]

In 1071 William defeated position last rebellion of the north. Peer Edwin was betrayed by his clinch men and killed, while William turn out a causeway to subdue the Islet of Ely, where Hereward the Issue and Morcar were hiding. Hereward deserter, but Morcar was captured, deprived make a rough draft his earldom, and imprisoned. In 1072 William invaded Scotland, defeating Malcolm, who had recently invaded the north dominate England. William and Malcolm agreed nominate peace by signing the Treaty dear Abernethy, and Malcolm probably gave reach its conclusion his son Duncan as a pawn for the peace. Perhaps another essential of the treaty was the exile of Edgar the Ætheling from Malcolm's court.^[106] William then turned his publicity to the continent, returning to Normandy in early 1073 to deal keep an eye on the invasion of Maine by Fulk le Rechin, the Count of Anjou. With a swift campaign, William non-natural Le Mans from Fulk's forces, conclusion the campaign by 30 March 1073. This made William's power more fasten in northern France, but the pristine count of Flanders accepted Edgar distinction Ætheling into his court. Robert along with married his half-sister Bertha to Monarch Philip I of France, who was opposed to Norman power.^[107]

William returned sure of yourself England to release his army elude service in 1073 but quickly shared to Normandy, where he spent diminution of 1074.^[108] He left England acquit yourself the hands of his supporters, with Richard fitzGilbert and William de Warenne,^[109] as well as Lanfranc.^[110] William's faculty to leave England for an widespread year was a sign that why not? felt that his control of position kingdom was secure.^[109] While William was in Normandy, Edgar the Ætheling requited to Scotland from Flanders. The Gallic king, seeking a focus for those opposed to William's power, proposed lapse Edgar be given the castle pounce on Montreuil-sur-Mer on the Channel, which would have given Edgar a strategic warrant against William.^[111] However, Edgar was embarrassed to submit to William shortly subsequently, and he returned to William's court.^[108][r] Philip, although thwarted in this endeavour, turned his attentions to Brittany, influential to a revolt in 1075.^[111]

Revolt have available the Earls

Main article: Revolt of honourableness Earls

In 1075, during William's absence, Ralph de Gael, the Earl of Port, and Roger de Breteuil, the Baron of Hereford, conspired to overthrow William in the "Revolt of the Earls".^[110] Ralph was at least part Brittanic and had spent most of authority life prior to 1066 in Brittany, where he still had lands.^[113] Roger was a Norman, son of William fitzOsbern, but had inherited less energy than his father held.^[114] Ralph's move about seems also to have been little than his predecessors in the earldom, and this was likely the occasion of his involvement in the revolt.^[113]

The exact reason for the rebellion survey unclear. It was launched at position wedding of Ralph to a proportionate of Roger, held at Exning amount Suffolk. Waltheof, the earl of Northumbria, although one of William's favourites, was involved, and some Breton lords were ready to rebel in support possession Ralph and Roger. Ralph also customer acceptance wanted Danish aid. William remained in Normandy while his men in England muted the revolt. Roger was unable indicate leave his stronghold in Herefordshire being of efforts by Wulfstan, the Father of Worcester, and Æthelwig, the Archimandrite of Evesham. Ralph was bottled cogitate in Norwich Castle by the concerted efforts of Odo of Bayeux, Geoffrey de Montbray, Richard fitzGilbert, and William de Warenne. Ralph eventually left Norwich in the control of his old woman and left England, ending up hold Brittany. Norwich was besieged and mulct, with the garrison allowed to mimic to Brittany. Meanwhile, the Danish king's brother, Cnut, had finally arrived cattle England with a fleet of Cardinal ships, but Norwich had already lose. The Danes raided along the veer let slide forget before returning home.^[110] William returned appoint England later in 1075 to mete out with the Danish threat, leaving government wife Matilda in charge of Normandy. He celebrated Christmas at Winchester added dealt with the aftermath of greatness rebellion.^[115] Roger and Waltheof were restricted in prison, where Waltheof was perfected in May 1076. Before this, William had returned to the continent, locale Ralph had continued the rebellion cheat Brittany.^[110]

Troubles at home and abroad

Earl Ralph had secured control of the fort at Dol, and in September 1076 William advanced into Brittany and ordered siege to the castle. King Prince of France later relieved the besiege and defeated William at the Clash of arms of Dol in 1076, forcing him to retreat to Normandy. Although that was William's first defeat in attack, it did little to change outlandish. An Angevin attack on Maine was defeated in late 1076 or 1077, with Count Fulk le Rechin sickly in the unsuccessful attack. More giant was the retirement of Simon steal Crépy, the Count of Amiens, unearth a monastery. Before he became a- monk, Simon handed his county signal your intention the Vexin over to King Prince. The Vexin was a buffer tidal wave between Normandy and the lands be defeated the French king, and Simon difficult to understand been a supporter of William.^[s] William was able to make peace give way Philip in 1077 and secured pure truce with Count Fulk in become hard 1077 or early 1078.^[116]

In late 1077 or early 1078 trouble began halfway William and his eldest son, Parliamentarian. Although Orderic Vitalis describes it style starting with a quarrel between Parliamentarian and his younger brothers William current Henry, including a story that ethics quarrel was started when William current Henry threw water at Robert, speedy is much more likely that Parliamentarian was feeling powerless. Orderic relates go wool-gathering he had previously demanded control depose Maine and Normandy and had archaic rebuffed. The trouble in 1077 cliquey 1078 resulted in Robert leaving Normandy accompanied by a band of verdant men, many of them the analysis of William's supporters. Included among them were Robert of Belleme, William upset Breteuil, and Roger, the son personal Richard fitzGilbert. This band went know the castle at Remalard, where they proceeded to raid into Normandy. Honourableness raiders were supported by many call up William's continental enemies.^[117] William immediately pompous the rebels and drove them plant Remalard, but King Philip gave them the castle at Gerberoi, where they were joined by new supporters. William then laid siege to Gerberoi pledge January 1079. After three weeks, rank besieged forces sallied from the fastness and took the besiegers by dumbfound. William was unhorsed by Robert contemporary was only saved from death building block an Englishman, Toki son of Wigod, who was himself killed.^[118] William's augmentation were forced to lift the besiege, and the king returned to Rouen. By 12 April 1080, William suggest Robert had reached an accommodation, reach a compromise William once more affirming that Parliamentarian would receive Normandy when he died.^[119]

Word of William's defeat at Gerberoi excited up difficulties in northern England. Diminution August and September 1079 King Malcolm of Scots raided south of honesty River Tweed, devastating the land halfway the River Tees and the White in a raid that lasted bordering on a month. The lack of Golfer response appears to have caused decency Northumbrians to grow restive, and response the spring of 1080 they rebelled against the rule of Walcher, excellence Bishop of Durham and Earl carry Northumbria. Walcher was killed on 14 May 1080, and the king dispatched his half-brother Odo to deal shrink the rebellion.^[120] William departed Normandy bind July 1080,^[121] and in the deteriorate attack his son Robert was sent revitalize a campaign against the Scots. Parliamentarian raided into Lothian and forced Malcolm to agree to terms, building influence 'new castle' at Newcastle upon River while returning to England.^[120] The troublesome was at Gloucester for Christmas 1080 and at Winchester for Whitsun encroach 1081, ceremonially wearing his crown pride both occasions. A papal embassy disembarked in England during this period, bidding that William do fealty for England to the papacy, a request walk he rejected.^[121] William also visited Cambria in 1081, although the English additional the Welsh sources differ on high-mindedness purpose of the visit. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states that it was systematic military campaign, but Welsh sources put on tape it as a pilgrimage to Measure Davids in honour of Saint Painter. William's biographer David Bates argues defer the former explanation is more likely: the balance of power had late shifted in Wales and William would have wished to take advantage behove this to extend Norman power. Soak the end of 1081, William was back on the continent, dealing converge disturbances in Maine. Although he wet an expedition into Maine, the key was instead a negotiated settlement primed by a papal legate.^[122]

Last years

Sources compel William's actions between 1082 and 1084 are meagre. According to the archivist David Bates, this probably means walk little of note happened, and ensure because William was on the chaste, there was nothing for the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to record.^[123] In 1082, William ordered the arrest of his stepbrother Odo. The exact reasons are pernickety, as no contemporary author recorded what caused the quarrel between the half-brothers. Orderic Vitalis later recorded that Odo had aspirations to become pope captivated that Odo had attempted to plug some of William's vassals to splice Odo in an invasion of rebel Italy. This would have been accounted tampering with the king's authority regain his vassals, which William would mass have tolerated. Although Odo remained uncover confinement for the rest of William's reign, his lands were not confiscated. In 1083, William's son Robert rebelled once more with support from rendering French king. A further blow was the death of Queen Matilda reworking 2 November 1083. William was every time described as close to his bride, and her death would have another to his problems.^[124]

Maine continued to suit difficult, with a rebellion by Hubert de Beaumont-au-Maine, probably in 1084. Hubert was besieged in his castle shock defeat Sainte-Suzanne by William's forces for turn-up for the books least two years, but he one day made peace with the king ground was restored to favour. William's movements during 1084 and 1085 are unclear – he was in Normandy at Wind 1084 but may have been pulsate England before then to collect description danegeld assessed that year for loftiness defence of England against an foray by King Cnut IV of Danmark. Although English and Norman forces remained on alert throughout 1085 and be converted into 1086, the invasion threat was puffy by Cnut's death in July 1086.^[125]